MID TEST

 EKA GUNARTI NINGSIH

RSA1C111005

1. A.Explain how the concept of organic compound from petroleum can be used as a fuel for vehicles such as car, motor bike, including aircraft.

Types of hydrocarbons contained in the Earth's oil consists mainly of alkanes, cycloalkanes, and a variety of aromatic hydrocarbons, coupled with some other minor elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, plus some types of metals such as iron, nickel, copper, and vanadium . 84% of the volume of hydrocarbons contained in the Earth's oil is converted into fuel, which includes gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and LPG. In the process of fuel combustion in vehicles for example gasoline. the process of chemical reaction is:

 2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g) + 10.86 MJ/mol (oktana)
So, the gasoline inside the piston, reacts with oxygen resulting in volume expansion resulting in increased pressure in it. This pressure is the one who will lead the movement so that the vehicle can run. This chemical process produces heat energy of 10.86 MJ / mol and exhaust in the form of CO2 and H2O.

B. explain it how the idea of chemical compounds from petroleum can be used to make clothing and plastic and material needs of other humans lives.
the petroleum distillation process will get results in the form of bitumen residue. Asphalt can not evaporate because it has the greatest carbon is C40. This is where there is also a wax, plastic seeds and others. This result is what can be used as materials for plastic and clothing. To dress the candle can be used in the batik process.


2. Explain why the hydrocarbons that are asymmetrical or chiral have a variety of benefits for humans being. And describe how does it the chiral centers can be formed.

Hydrocarbons chiral or symmetry has many benefits in people's lives. Hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that the chiral C atom in it binds four different functional groups and can be replaced by other functional groups. Therefore, this compound is widely in use in human life. Chiral Molecules have very unique properties, namely optical properties. That is a chiral molecule has the ability to rotate the plane of polarized light in a device called a polarimeter.

3.      When the ethylene gas produced from a ripe fruit can be used to ripe other  fruits that are still unripe. How do you idea when the gas is used as fuel  gas like methane gas.

My idea is to prepare a special room supposing an airtight greenhouse, protected from moisture, and make sure no light can enter. In the room is filled with ripe fruit that would emit ethylene gas. Allow a few days to be sure of ethylene gas in the room was raised. After that the gas is in the air with a vacuum suction. Then this gas insert into the tube so that it will lead to high-pressure gas and has explosive power.

4.      Aromatic compounds are marked by ease of adjacent electrons conjugated. Please explain why  an unsaturated compound which highly conjugated but is not aromatic?

Unsaturated compound binds to the conjugated electron. But in this condition is not only aromatic compound having a conjugated electron adjacent but also must have six carbon atoms connected by three single bonds and a double bond three intermittent. Three single bonds and 3 bonds bond that criss-cross is not owned by unsaturated compounds. Therefore, these compounds can say is unsaturated compounds are not aromatic.

Organic Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are obviously important because many organic and biological reactions are catalysed by acids or bases. Originally, a substance was identified as an acid if it exhibited the properties shown by other acids: a sour taste (the word acid is derived from the Latin acidus meaning ‘sour’) and the abilities to turn blue vegetable dyes red, to dissolve chalk with the evolution of gas, and to react with certain ‘bases’ to form salts. It seemed that all acids must therefore contain something in common and at the end of the eighteenth century, the French chemist Lavoisier erroneously proclaimed this common agent to be oxygen (indeed, he named oxygen from the Greek oxus ‘acid’ and gennao ‘I produce’).

Later it was realized that some acids, for example, hydrochloric acid, did not contain oxygen and soon hydrogen was identified as the key species. However, not all hydrogen-containing compounds are acidic, and at the end of the nineteenth century it was understood that such compounds are acidic only if they produce hydrogen ions H+ in aqueous solution—the more acidic the compound, the more hydrogen ions it produces. This was refined once more in 1923 by J.N. Brønsted who proposed simple definitions for acids and bases.

Brønsted definitions of acids and bases

• An acid is a species having a tendency to lose a proton

• A base is a species having a tendency to accept a proton

Every acid has a conjugate base

In water, hydrogen chloride donates a proton to a water molecule to give a hydronium ion and chloride on, both of which are strongly solvated.

Water can behave as an acid or as a base

If a strong acid is added to water, the water acts as a base and is protonated by the acid to become H3O+. If we added a strong base to water, the base would deprotonate the water to give hydroxide ion, OH–, and here the water would be acting as an acid. Such compounds that can act as either an acid or a base are called amphoteric.

Organic Acids and Bases
a. Organic Acid

Organic acids are characterized by the presence of positively polarized hydrogen atom. There are two kinds of organic acids, the first of a hydrogen atom attached to the oxygen atom, such as the metal of alcohol and acetic acid. Second, the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms in which the carbon atoms are bonded directly to the carbonyl group (C = O), such as acetone.

Methyl alcohol contains OH bonds and hence weak acid, acetic acid has acidic OH bond stronger. Acetic acid is a stronger acid than alcohol because the conjugate base metal formed can be stabilized through resonance, while the conjugate base of methyl alcohol is only stabilized by keelektronegativitasan of oxygen atoms.

The acidity of the conjugate base of acetone are shown in the form stabilized by resonance. And again, one of the form resonannya stabilize the negative charge by transferring the charge on the oxygen atom.

Compounds called carboxylic acids, has a-COOH group, are very much in living organisms and is involved in metabolic reaction pathways. Acetic acid, pyruvic acid, and citric acid is an example. It should be noted that the physiological pH is about 7.3, so the carboxylic acids are mostly found as the anion, the carboxylate anion,-COO-.

Examples of organic acids: acetic acid, pyruvic acid, citric acid
1) Acetic Acid
Acetic acid, ethanoic acid or acetic acid is an organic acid chemical compounds known as sour flavoring and aroma in food. Acetic acid has the empirical formula C2H4O2. This formula is often written in the form of CH3-COOH, CH3COOH, or CH3CO2H. Pure acetic acid (called glacial acetic acid) is a colorless hygroscopic liquid, and has a freezing point of 16.7 ° C.

Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids, as formic acid. Solution of acetic acid in water is a weak acid, meaning that only partially dissociate into H + and CH3COO-. Acetic acid is a chemical reagent and industrial raw materials is important. Acetic acid is used in the production of polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose acetate and polyvinyl acetate, as well as a wide range of fibers and fabrics. In the food industry, acetic acid is used as an acidity regulator. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used as a water softener. Within a year, world demand for acetic acid to 6.5 million tons per year. 1.5 million tons per year generated from the recycling, the remainder derived from the petrochemical industry as well as from biological sources.

2) Citric acid
Citric acid is a weak organic acid found in the leaves and fruits of plants of the genus Citrus (orange-jerukan). This compound is a good preservative and natural, but used as a flavor enhancer sour on food and soft drinks. In biochemistry, citric acid is known as an intermediate in the citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondria, which is important in the metabolism of living things. This substance can also be used as an environmentally friendly cleaning agent and as an antioxidant.

Citric acid is found in many fruits and vegetables, but has been found at high concentrations, which can reach 8% dry weight, the lemon and lime juice (such as lemon and lime).

Citric acid is the chemical formula C6H8O7 (structure shown in the tables of information on the right). Acid structure is reflected in its name IUPAC acid, 2-hydroxy-1 ,2,3-propanatrikarboksilat.

3) pyruvic acid
Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H) is an alpha-keto acid which has an important role in biochemical processes. Carboxylate anion of pyruvic acid called pyruvate

Pyruvic acid is a colorless liquid with an odor similar to acetic acid. Pyruvic acid mixed with water, and soluble in ethanol and diethyl ether. In the laboratory, pyruvic acid is made by heating a mixture of tartaric acid with potassium bisulfate, or by hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide, which is made by reaction of acetyl chloride and potassium cyanide:
CH3COCl + KCN → CH3COCN
CH3COCN → CH3COCOOH

Pyruvate is an important chemical compound in biochemistry. This compound is the metabolism of glucose is called glycolysis. A glucose molecule is split into two molecules of pyruvic acid, which is then used to generate energy. If there is enough oxygen, the pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl-CoA, which is then processed in the Krebs cycle. Pyruvate can also be converted into oxaloacetate by reaction anaploretik were then broken down into molecules of carbon dioxide. Cycle name is taken from the biochemist Hans Adolf Krebs, winner of the 1953 Nobel Prize in Physiology, as he managed to identify the cycle).

If there is not enough oxygen, pyruvic acid is broken down anaerobically, producing lactic acid in animals and humans, or ethanol in plants. Pyruvate is converted into lactate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and the coenzyme NADH through lactate fermentation, or to acetaldehyde and then ethanol through fermentation alcohol.

Pyruvic acid can also be converted to carbohydrates via gluconeogenesis, to fatty acids or energy through acetyl-CoA, to the amino acid alanine and to ethanol.

Pyruvic acid derivatives, 3-bromopiruvat been studied for the treatment of cancer.
b. Organic Bases

Organic base is characterized by the presence of atoms with a lone pair of electrons that can bind protons. Compounds containing nitrogen atom is an example of an organic base, but the oxygen-containing compounds can also act as a base when reacted with a strong acid. It should be noted that compounds containing oxygen atoms can act as an acid or alkaline, depending on the environment. As acetone and methyl alcohol can act as an acid when it donates a proton, but as a base while receiving oxygen atom proton.

Examples of organic bases are: amine
1) amine

Amina has the molecular formula RNH2 (primary amine), R2NH (secondary amine) and R3NH (tertiary amine). Amina kwarterner NR4 + wherein R is alkyl or aryl group.
Because amine containing free electron pair on the nitrogen atom, the amine is alkaline (Bronsted - Lowry) and are nucleophiles. Basanya properties of aliphatic amines stronger than ammonia. Instead aromatic amines basanya properties lower than in ammonia. Amines react with mineral acids to form ammonium salts are soluble in water kwarterner.

Aromatic amine is insoluble in water, such as starch, N-methyl aniline. Ammonia and primary amine each containing an-NH2. In ammonia, this group is bound to a hydrogen atom, while the primary amine attached to an alkyl group or a benzene ring.

PROTEINS AS A TRANSPORT TOOL

Proteins are complex organic compounds of high molecular weight which are polymers of amino acid monomers are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Protein molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. Protein plays an important role in the structure and function of all living cells and viruses.

Its function is primarily protein is a cell structure forming elements, such as the hair, wool, kolgen, connective tissue, cell membranes, and others. Moreover, it can also function as an active proteins, such as enzymes, which act as catalysts in biochemical prses all cells. Protein enzymes are active besides hormones, hemoglobin, a protein that bound to the gene, tioksin, antibody / antigen and others.

Some characteristics of protein molecules is:
1. large molecular weight, thousands to millions, so it is a macromolecule.
2. generally consists of 20 different amino acids. Amino acid binding (covalently) to one another in the sequence variations are manifold, forming a polypeptide chain. Peptide bond is a bond between the α-carboxyl group of one amino acid with the α-amino group of another amino acid.
3. presence of other chemical bonds, leading to the formation of the arches of the polypeptide chain into three-dimensional structures of proteins. For instance, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic bonds (bonds apolar), ionic bonds or electrostatic and van der Waals bonding.
4. The structure is not stable on several factors such as pH, radiation, temperature, medium organic solvents, and detergents.
5. umumya reactive and highly specific, due to the presence of a reactive side groups and a unique arrangement makromolekulnya structure.

Various kinds of side groups is that of a cation, anion, hydroxyl aromatic, aliphatic hydroxyl, amines, amides, thiols and heterocyclic group.

The classification is based on the biochemistry of proteins in biological function.
1. Enzyme
An enzyme is a protein group of the largest and most important. Examples of enzymes: ribonuklese, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of RNA; cytochrome, involved in the process of moving electrons; tipsin, kataliator breaker certain peptide bonds in the polypeptide.

2. Protein Builders
Proteins serve as the building blocks of the structure. Some examples: wrapping viral protein, an envelope on the chromosome; glycoprotein, is supporting structure of the cell wall;

3. Protein Kontaktil
Is a class of proteins that play a role in the process of motion. For instance: myosin, filaments immobile element in the myofibrils; actin, filament elements engaged in myofibrils; dienin, shakes and hair found in the flagellum.

4. Protein Carrier
Has the ability to bind to specific molecules and transporting various substances through the blood stream. For example: hemoglobin, consisting of clusters of iron-containing compounds hame bound globin protein, functions as a carrier of oxygen in the blood of vertebrates; hemosianin, as an oxygen carrier in the blood of some kinds of invertebrates; serum albumin, fatty acid transporters in the blood; ceruloplasmin, copper ion transporters in the blood.

5. Protein Hormones
Some protein hormones are: insulin, glycated regulate metabolism; adrenokortikotrop, regulate the synthesis of corticosteroids; growth hormone, stimulates bone growth.

6. Equity Protein Toxins
Are toxic to animals high class: toxin of Clostridium botulinum, which causes food poisoning.

7. Protective Protein
Generally found in the blood of vertebrates. eg, antibodies, proteins formed if the antigen and the antigen is a foreign protein, can form complex compounds.

8. Protein Reserves
Saved for a variety of metabolic processes in the body. For example: ovalbumin, a protein contained padaputih eggs; zein, a protein in corn grain.

HEMOGLOBIN
Hemoglobin consists mostly of protein subunits, in turn, a large number of folded chains of amino acids called polypeptides different. Amino acid sequence of the polypeptide made by each cell, in turn determined by the stretch of DNA called genes. In all proteins, it is the sequence of amino acids that determine the nature and function of protein chemistry.


There is more than one hemoglobin gene. Amino acid sequence of the globin protein in hemoglobin usually differ between species. This difference grows with the evolutionary distance between species. For example, the most common hemoglobin sequences in humans and chimpanzees are nearly identical, differ by only one amino acid in both alpha and beta globin protein chains. This difference grows greater between species that are less closely related.

Even within a species, different variants of hemoglobin always exist, although one sequence is usually the "most common" one in each species. Mutations in the gene for hemoglobin protein in a species result in hemoglobin variants. Many mutant forms of hemoglobin cause no disease. Several mutant forms of hemoglobin, however, led to a group of hereditary diseases called hemoglobinopathies. The most famous hemoglobinopathy is sickle cell disease, which is the first human disease whose mechanism is understood at the molecular level. A set of (mostly) separate from a disease called thalassemia involves low production of normal hemoglobin and normal sometimes, through problems and mutations in globin gene regulation. All of these diseases result in anemia.

Variations in hemoglobin amino acid sequence, like other proteins, may be adaptive. For example, recent studies have shown genetic variants in deer mice that help explain how deer mice that live in the mountains are able to survive in the thin air that accompanies high altitudes. A researcher from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln found mutations in four different genes that can explain the difference between deer mice that live in the grassland plains versus mountains. After examining wild mice captured from both highlands and lowlands, it was found that: the genes of the two strains are "virtually identical-except for those who manage their hemoglobin oxygen-carrying capacity." "The genetic difference enables highland mice to make more efficient use of their oxygen", since less available at higher altitudes, such as in the mountains. Mammoth hemoglobin showing mutations that allow for the delivery of oxygen at lower temperatures, thus enabling mammoths to migrate to higher latitudes during the Pleistocene.

Hemoglobin (Hb) is synthesized in a complex series of steps. Heme part is synthesized in a series of steps in the mitochondria and cytosol immature red blood cells, while the globin protein parts are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytosol. Production of Hb continues in the cell during the early development of the proerythroblast to reticulocytes in the bone marrow. At this point, the nucleus is lost in mammalian red blood cells, but not in birds and other species. Even after losing the nucleus in mammals, residual ribosomal RNA allows further synthesis of Hb until the reticulocyte loses RNA soon after entering the blood vessels (this hemoglobin-synthetic RNA in fact gives the reticulocyte reticulated appearance and name). Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins.Myoglobin


Found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates, including humans, giving the muscle tissue gray or dark red different. It is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but not tetramer, but is monomer without cooperative binding. It is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.

Hemocyanin
The second most common oxygen-transporting protein found in nature, is found in the blood of many arthropods and molluscs. Uses copper prosthetic groups instead of iron heme groups and is blue when the oxygen.

Hemerythrin
Some marine invertebrates and a few species of annelid use of non-heme iron-containing protein to carry oxygen in their blood. Appears pink / purple when oxygen, clear when not.

Chlorocruorin
Found in many annelids, very similar to erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure. Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygen.

Vanabins
Also known as vanadium chromagens, they are found in the blood of sea squirts. No one ever thought to use the rare metal vanadium as a prosthetic group binds oxygen. However, although they do contain vanadium by preference, they apparently bind little oxygen, and thus have some other function, which has not been described (sea squirts also contain some hemoglobin). They can act as a poison.

Erythrocruorin
Found in annelids, including earthworms, it is a giant free-floating blood protein containing many dozens-perhaps hundreds-and-heme iron-bearing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular mass greater than 3.5 million daltons.


Pinnaglobin
Just look at the mollusc Pinna squamosa. Brown manganese porphyrin-based protein.

Leghemoglobin
In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by the heme iron-containing oxygen-binding protein. Specific enzyme protected is nitrogenase, which can reduce nitrogen gas in the presence of free oxygen.

Coboglobin
A synthetic cobalt-based porphyrin. Coboprotein color will appear when the oxygen, but yellow when in veins.

Use and Abuse Hemoglobin
In addition to oxygen transport, hemoglobin can bind and transport other molecules such as nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. Nitric oxide affects the blood vessel walls, causing them to relax. This in turn reduces blood pressure. Recent studies have shown that nitric oxide can bind to specific cysteine ​​residues in hemoglobin and also to iron in the heme group, as shown in 1buw PDB entries. Thus, hemoglobin contribute to the regulation of blood pressure by distributing nitric oxide by blood. Carbon monoxide, on the other hand, is a poisonous gas. It easily replaces oxygen in the heme group, as seen in PDB entry 2hco and many others, forming a stable complex that is difficult to remove. This abuse of the heme binding and transport blocks of normal oxygen, suffocating the surrounding cells.


Artificial Blood
Blood transfusions have saved countless lives. However, the need for matching blood type, short life of stored blood, and the possibility of contamination are major concerns. An understanding of the workings of hemoglobin, based on decades of research into the biochemical and crystallographic structure of many, has prompted a search for blood substitutes and artificial blood. The most obvious approach is to use pure hemoglobin solution to replace lost blood. The main challenge is to maintain the hemoglobin protein chains four together. In the absence of the protective casing of red blood cells, four chain goes downhill fast. To avoid this problem, a novel hemoglobin molecule has been designed in which two of the four chains are physically connected together, as shown in 1c7d PDB entries. In this structure, two additional glycine residues form a relationship between the two chains, preventing their separation in solution.

LIPIDS

     Fat is one ester group of organic compounds found in many plants, animals, or humans and is very useful for human life fats are liquid at room temperature are called oils, fats while the term is usually used for the solid form. Generally derived from animal fats, while oil from plants. Some examples of fats and oils is beef fat, coconut oil, corn oil, and fish oil.

     A. Structure and Nomenclature Formula Fat
Fats are esters of glycerol with carboxylic acids of high interest. Constituent fatty acids are called fatty acids.  In fat, one glycerol molecule binds three molecules of fatty acids, therefore fat is a triglyceride. The general structure of fat molecules as shown in the illustration below:

In the fat structure above formula, R1-COOH,-COOH R2, and R3-COOH are fatty acid molecules attached to the glycerol.

Common names of fat is triglycerides. Naming fat starting with glyceryl followed by the name of fatty acids. example :

The fatty acids found in nature are palmitic acid (C15H31COOH), stearic acid (C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H33COOH), and linoleic acid (C17H29COOH).

• Palmitic acid, also called heksadekanoik acid, is the major saturated fatty acids in meat and dairy products. Palmitic acid is the main component of the oil palm trees (palm oil and coconut oil). Retinyl palmitate is an antioxidant and a good source of vitamin A added to low-fat milk.
• Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid most commonly found in nature following the palmitic acid. Stearic acid is mainly used in the production of detergents, soaps, and cosmetics such as shampoo and shaving cream produk.Asam stearate are used to produce dietary supplements.
  
  In fireworks, stearic acid is often used to coat metal powders such as aluminum and iron. This prevents oxidation, so the composition of which will be stored for long periods of time.
  
  Stearic acid is a common lubricant for injection molding and pressing of ceramic powders. It is also used as a mold release for foam latex baked in a stone mold
• Oleic acid is a fatty acid that is found in almost
  all foodstuffs, both animals and plants. Oleic acid from animal
  are found in the bone and fat in milk. Oleic acid plant
  are found in the pulp and seeds.
  
  function of oleic acid in the body:
  - As a source of energy
  -Is an antioxidant that works to inhibit cancer
  -Lowers cholesterol
  -As the solvent medium vitamin A,
• Linoleic acid (LA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid (AA) and thus some prostaglandins. It is found in the cell membrane lipids. It is abundant in many vegetable oils, comprising more than half (by weight) of poppy seeds, safflower, sunflower and corn oils.
  
  Linoleic acid is a member of a group of essential fatty acids called omega-6 fatty acids are essential for the dietary needs of all mammals. Another group of essential fatty acids are omega-3 fatty acids, such as Alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-6 deficiency symptoms include dry hair, hair loss, and poor wound healing.

. Types of Fatty Acids

Fat molecules formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. Therefore, the classification based on the types of fat over their constituent fatty acids. Based on the type of bond, the fatty acids are grouped into two, namely:

a. Saturated fatty acids
     Saturated fatty acids, the fatty acids are all carbon atoms bond to form a single bond carbon chain (saturated). Example: lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid.

b. Unsaturated fatty acids
     Unsaturated fatty acids, the fatty acids containing double bonds in the carbon chain.
Example: oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid.


Physical properties of fats

a. At room temperature, the animal fat in general is a solid, while the plants in the form of fat from liquid.

b. The fat has a high melting point of saturated fatty acids, whereas fat has a low melting point of unsaturated fatty acids. Example: Tristearin (esters of glycerol with three molecules of stearic acid) has a melting point of 71 ° C, whereas triolein (esters of glycerol with three molecules of oleic acid) has a melting point of -17 ° C.

c. Fats containing short-chain fatty acids dissolved in water, while fat contains long-chain fatty acids are not soluble in water.

d. All the fat soluble in chloroform and benzene. Alcohol heat is a good fat solvent


Use of Fats and Oils in Everyday Life
Fat or oil can be used for multiple purposes, including the following.

1. Energy source for the body
Fat foods or serve as a backup energy source. Fats are energy-rich foods. Combustion of 1 gram of fat produces about 9 kilocalories.

2. Materials for butter or margarine
Fat or oil can be turned into butter or margarine by hydrogenation.

3. Ingredients soap making
Soap can be made from a reaction between fats or oils with KOH or NaOH. Soap containing Na metal called hard soaps (reacting strongly to the skin) and is often called soap. While soap containing K metal called soft soap and in everyday life known as bath soap.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF LIFE

      In this life, to be able to continue to live and thrive, organisms must be able to do everything that will be able to maintain their lives. Organisms in demand to be able to exchange matter and energy with the environment, transform matter and energy into a different form, responding to any changes in their environment, grow and reproduce. In this case there are organic compounds that play a major role in it. These compounds are called macromolecules.

     Macromolecules is a combination of many similar smaller molecules polymerized into a chain structure. In living organisms, there are three main types of macromolecules that controls all the activities and determine what an organism will do and be. Macromolecules that are proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

     In this article I specialize discussion on proteins. 

     Proteins are polymers of amino acids. With 20 different fundamental amino acids as building blocks, an extraordinarily large variety of proteins can be biosynthesized under the direction of the genetic code.

     Structure of Amino Acids
A. Fundamental Structure - An Amine and An Acid
As the term amino acid describes, each monomer has an amine group and a carboxylic acid group attached to a prochiral carbon. In addition side chains can also be present. These range from a simple
hydrogen to long carbon chains with functional groups.

B. Ionization of Amino Acids
The amine and carboxyl groups exhibit typical acid-base behavior which is pH-dependent. At low pH both groups are protonated: the amine group has a plus (+) charge and the carboxyl is neutral (0). As the pH rises the carboxyl loses its proton becoming negatively charged (-). At higher pH values the amine (+) deprotonates to produce a neutral amine (0). The result of this sequential deprotonation is a series of charged forms ranging from + to 0 to -. If the side chains are capable of acid-base reactions, the number of possible charged forms depends upon the number and types of amino acids present,
the pH, and the pKa of each ionizable group. This is true of proteins as well as amino acids. The pH at which the molecule has a net charge of zero, the zwitterion form, is called the pI or isoelectric
(isoelectronic) state. The pI can be calculated by taking the average of the two pKa values on either side of the zwitterion form. At a pH lower than the pI the molecule will be in a net + charged form while at a pH greater than the pI it will be in a net - charged form. Charged forms can be separated in an electric field, a process known as electrophoresis.
 
C. The Common Amino Acids
There are 20 common amino acids which can be grouped by the nature of the R side chain. Our groups are acidic, basic, alkyl, polar, aromatic, sulfur-containing, and cyclic.

      The Peptide Bond: Formation of Polypeptides and Proteins
Polypeptides and proteins are the products of amide, or peptide, bond formation between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxyl of another.

      The Hierarchy of Protein Structure
A. Primary Protein Structure - The Sequence of Amino Acids
The sequence of amino acids in the polymer, from the free amino- or Nterminus to the free carboxyl- or C-terminus, is called the primary (10) structure of a protein. This sequence is dictated by the genetic code.
 
B. Secondary Protein Structure - Helices and Pleated Sheets
A peptide bond has partial double bond character that makes it planar; the geometry is usually trans. As the polypeptide chain grows, the peptide bond can participate in hydrogen bonding - amide hydrogen to carbonyl oxygen. Because of the geometry of the peptide bond, this hydrogen bonding goes on between amino acids which are distant from each other. Organized, folded secondary (20) structures are formed. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are the two most common secondary structures. In the alpha helix hydrogen bonding usually occurs between the peptide bonds of four amino acids distant from each other. Beta structure involves the polypeptide chain in its fully extended form coming back on itself to hydrogen bond side-to-side. The two polypeptide strands in beta structures may be parallel or antiparallel to each other.

Secondary structures are, in turn, organized into domains, or supersecondary structures. Collagen, which is the most abundant protein of the body, has unique primary and secondary structures. A high glycine and proline content leads to fairly rigid, kinked strands which can intertwine in a triple helical structure held together by hydrogen bonding between strands. The collagen helices aggregate to form skin, bone and connective tissue.

C. Protein Tertiary Structure
Side chains of the amino acids participate in tertiary (30) structure, that is, they stabilize the overall conformation of the protein molecule. The forces which hold tertiary structure together include covalent (disulfide bridges) and noncovalent (hydrogen bonding, salt bridge, hydrophobic) interactions. Shapes of tertiary structure subunits can be globular or fibrous.
 
D. Quaternary Protein Structure - Association of Subunits
Many proteins have more than one folded subunit, linked by the same types of noncovalent forces which hold 30 structure together. All of the subunits are needed for the protein to function properly. This is known as quaternary (40) structure.
 
E. Complex Proteins - Proteins Plus
All of the interactions mentioned above are integral parts of the simple structure of a protein. In addition proteins may have cofactors such as metal ions, carbohydrates or lipids, and/or organic molecules associated with them. This makes the proteins complex. Myoglobin and hemoglobin are examples of related complex proteins. Myoglobin has a single globular protein subunit complexed with an organic heterocyclic system known as heme. The heme in turn holds an iron (II) ion which
can bind molecular oxygen, O2. All of these components contribute to the function of myoglobin: the storage of oxygen in muscle tissue. Hemoglobin is related to myoglobin both structurally and functionally. It contains four myoglobin-type subunits each of which has an iron(II)- heme complex that can bind O2. However, the four subunits interact cooperatively in order to transport oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the cells.

F. Denaturation
The forces which hold a protein molecule together can be disrupted by changes in temperature and pH as well as by organic solvents and mechanical manipulation. This is known as denaturation.

     The protein itself has many functions in our bodies. Basically support the presence of protein each cell of the body, the immune process. Every adult should consume at least 1 gram of protein per kg of body weight. The need for protein increases in women who are pregnant and athletes.  
      Protein deficiency can be fatal. Hair loss (Hair consists of 97-100% of the protein-Keratin). The worst was called kwashiorkor, a protein deficiency disease. Usually in small children who are suffering, can be seen from the name of malnutrition, caused by the filtration of water in the blood vessels resulting in Odem. Other symptoms that can be recognized are: hipotonus, growth disorders, fatty liver. Ongoing shortage caused berkibat marasmus and death.  
      Protein obtained from our food. Protein in the digestive system will be broken down into peptide-peptide structurally simpler composed of amino acids. This is done with the help of enzymes. The human body requires a 9 amino acids. That is nine amino acids can not be synthesized by the body essential, while some amino acids can be synthesized alone or essential by the body. Total of 21 amino acids. After absorption in the intestine it will be given to the blood. Blood carries amino acids to every cell of the body. Code for essential amino acids can not be synthesized by the DNA. This is called DNAtranskripsi. Then, because the transcription process further ribosomes or endoplasmic reticulum, known as translation.  
      Advantage Protein is a source of energy, play a role in the formation and repair of cells and tissues, the synthesis of hormones, enzymes, and antibodies as well as regulating the levels of acid-base balance in the cell.

HYDROCARBON AROMATIC

An aromatic hydrocarbon or arena (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic.

Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom.

     *aromatic substitution
In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic particular one, meaning that there are cancerous. These compounds can produce tumors in mice within a very short time even though only a few are applied to the skin. This is not only carcinogenic hydrocarbons present in coal tar, but also the soot and tobacco smoke and can form in the meat baker. Biological effects have been known for a long time, ie since 1775, when the soot is defined as a cause of cancer of the penis chimney cleaning. Incidence of lip cancer and heart disease are also found in the smoker.

How these carcinogens cause cancer now began to unfold. To eliminate hydrocarbons, mengoksidasinya body to be more soluble in water, making it easier excreted. Metabolic oxidation product appears to be the major cause of cancer. For example, one of the most potent carcinogens of this type is benzo [a] pirena. Enzymatic oxidation converts it into diol-epoxide as shown in the figure below.

Diol-epoxide is then reacted with the cell's DNA, causing mutations that ultimately prevents cells reproduce normally.

Benzene is highly toxic (toxic) to humans and can cause severe liver damage, but toluene, though not dangerous, is much less toxic. How might these two similar compounds behave differently? To eliminate benzene from the body, must be in cinci aromatic oxidation, and this oxidation intermediates of a destructive nature. However, the side chain methyl of toluene can be oxidized to produce benzoic acid, which can be excreted. Intermediates in this process can not cause health problems.

While some chemicals can cause cancer, other substances can change or heal. Many substances that can prevent cancer growth, and assessment of cancer chemotherapy has been widely sumbangnya human health.

A benzene ring structure of the molecule is made ​​when six carbon atoms connected to each other in the ring related. Each carbon atom has four electrons, two electrons combine with neighboring carbon atoms, while one went to the hydrogen atom. The fourth is what is known as the delocalized electrons, which means that it is not directly associated with a particular atom. Benzene ring is often taken as a hexagonal shape with a circle in the middle to represent the electron is delocalized. Benzene occurs to form highly toxic aromatic hydrocarbons.

HYDROGEN DERIVATIVES

Molecules of organic compounds can be thought of as a hydrocarbon molecule in which one or more atoms of hydrogen (H) atoms replaced by a new one (other than C) or groups of atoms (clusters). Such molecules referred to as derivatives of hydrocarbons and atom-atom or group that replaces H referred to as the functional groups of molecules of ethane (CH3-CH3) is replaced with a functional group-OH CH3-CH2OH is referred to as alcohol.

Functional Groups are groups that can determine the nature of a substitute for carbon compounds.

1. Alkanol (Alcohol) R-OH

* Manufacture:

Alkyl halides Bases + -> + alkanol halide compounds

* Nomenclature alkanol

1. Main chain is the longest chain containing the OH group

2. OH group must be the smallest number

     2.  alkoxy alkanes (ether) R-OR '
*  Manufacture:
Williamson synthesis:
Alkanoic Sodium Alkyl halide + -> + Alkanes alkoxy Sodium Halides
* Alkoxy alkane nomenclature
1. If the alkyl group is different, so that C is small as alkoxy.
2. Alkoxy group in the smallest number

    3. Alkanal (aldehyde) R-COH
* Construction:
Oxidation of primary alkanol
formic acid alkyl esters with Grignard reagents
* Nomenclature:
Cluster CHO always calculated as the number one

    4. alkanon (ketones) R-COR '
* manufacture:
oxidation of secondary alkanol
* Nomenclature Alkanon:
1. Longest chain with kabonil CO group is the major chains.
2. CO group must be the smallest number

    5. alkanoic acids (carboxylic acids) R-COOH
* manufacture:
hydrolysis of alkyl alkanoic
oxidation of primary alkanol
* Alkanoic acid nomenclature:
COOH group is always the number one.

   6. alkyl alkanoic (ester)
* manufacture:
alkanoic acid esterification is the reaction of the alkanol
* alkanoic acid nomenclature
Cluster alkilnya always bonded to O

ANSWER OF THE QUESTION

1. effects on fruit ripening ethylene gas
   The answer : Ethylene is a volatile chemical compounds produced during the cooking process, especially bebuahan crops and vegetables. In agriculture ethylene is used as an astringent fruit cooking. Ethylene affects fruit ripening by encouraging hoarding flour and sugar solution.
   
   Basically affect ethylene climacteric fruit and nonklimakterik. The difference in fruit ethylene nonklimakterik only affects the respiration, but did not stimulate the growth of endogenous ethylene and fruit ripening. While on climacteric affects everything. Ethylene is an endogenous ethylene dihasilkanoleh ripe fruit by itself can stimulate ripening of other fruits.
   
   The process of fruit ripening is often associated with a series of changes that can be seen meluputi color, aroma, konsisitensi, and flavor and aroma. The combination of these attributes will contribute to the possibility of the fruit good to eat. But with the rapid pace of ripening fruit, the fruit is also fast towards destruction or decay.
2. in one group, why the C atom can bond set out for one, two and three, while the other atoms can not be.

          The answer : because the carbon atom has special properties
The number of carbon compounds is currently more than the number of non-carbon compounds. DAPT forming carbon compounds setabil and huge numbers, because the element carbon has several distinctive sifaty, among others: \

1. In these compounds, elemental carbon to form four pairs of electrons in fellowship with other atoms so that the formation was complete octet-formation in the absence of electron pairs bebasatau the empty orbitals. That's because they stable carbon compounds when viewed from the point kinetic.

2. Elemental carbon can form chemical bonds are strong, both as a single bond, a double bond or a double three. This is evident from the amount of the bond energy, we can see below:
Single bonds: C - C bond Waterwheel: + 356 kJ 1/mol
Bond: C = C bond energy 598kJ + 1/mol
Three double bonds: C = C bond energy: 813 + Kj 1/mol
Single bonds: C - H bond energy: 416 kJ + 1/mol
Generally compounds - carbon compounds when exposed to the air becomes unstable. This was evident when the compound - burning carbon compounds directly affected by the exothermic reaction. So carbon compounds are kinetically stable, but not necessarily energetically stable, because if a carbon compound exposed to air so he immediately reacted. There are exceptions when the methane comes from natural gas when exposed to air indirect fire, but it must be heated first, due to the reaction of high activation energy needed. So the mix is ​​not going to react before being given energy by heating it first.
3. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, valence electrons because it has n4. In compounds C atoms form bonds with sp 3 hybridization with single bonds, but not for compounds containing double bonds.
4. Atom - carbon atoms can hold katenasi the ability to form a carbon chain. The carbon chain may be open or ring and branched or straight. The result of that is the emergence katenasi isomeri events, which are substances - chemicals that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.

PETROLEUM

Petroleum is also dubbed as the black gold, is a thick liquid, dark brown or greenish flammable, which is in the upper layers of the few areas in the earth's crust. Petroleum consists of a complex mixture of different hydrocarbons, the majority of the alkane series, but vary in appearance, composition, and purity. Oil extracted from oil wells in the oil mines. Location of the wells is obtained after going through the process of geological studies, sediment analysis, and the structure of the source code, and various studies lainnya.Setelah, the Earth will be processed in oil refineries where oil and split the results based on the boiling point to produce a wide range of fuels, from gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and other chemical reagents needed to make plastics and pesticides obatan.Minyak Earth used to produce a wide range of goods and material human needs.

Petroleum Establishment

The process of petroleum formation is described by two theories, namely:
Inorganic Theory

Inorganic theory proposed by Berthelok (1866) which states that petroleum derived and the reaction of calcium carbide, CaC2 (and the reaction between carbonate rocks and alkali metals) and water produces acetylene which can be turned into oil at high temperature and pressure.

Alkali → CaC2 CaCO3 + HO + HC = CH → → Petroleum

Theory of Organic
Organic theory proposed by Engker (1911) which states that petroleum is formed from the weathering and decomposition of anaerobic micro-organisms (microorganisms) from marine plants in porous rocks.


Composition of Petroleum
The composition of petroleum are classified into four groups, namely:

Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)

* Known as alkanes or paraffin
* The presence of straight-chain as the main component (the highest), while the less branched chain
* Compounds authors include:

1. Methane CH4
2. ethane CH3 CH3
3. propane CH3 CH2 CH3
4. butane CH3 (CH2) 2 CH3
5. n-heptane, CH3 (CH2) 5 CH3
6. iso octane CH3 - C (CH 3) 2 CH 2 CH (CH3) 2

Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes)
* Known as alkenes
* Its existence is only slightly
Compounds constituent:

1. Ethene, CH2 CH2
2. Propene, CH 3 CH 2 CH
3. Butene, CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH

Cyclic saturated hydrocarbon chain (cycloalkanes)

* Known as cycloalkanes or naftena
* Existence less than alkanes
* Compounds constituent:

1.Siklopropana
2.Siklobutana
3. Cyclopentane
4. Siklopheksana

Aromatic hydrocarbons

* Known as a series of aromatic
* Its existence as a minor component / bit
* Compound formulation:

1.Naftalena
2.Antrasena
3. Benzene
4. Toluene

Other Compounds

* Existence is very little
* Compounds that may be present in petroleum is sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and organo metallic (very small)

Petroleum Processing
Crude oil gained from drilling a thick black liquid that utilization should be processed first. Petroleum drilling in Indonesia, located on the north coast of Java (Cepu, Wonokromo, Cirebon), Sumatra (Aceh, Riau), Kalimantan (Tarakan, Balikpapan) and Irian (Papua). Petroleum processing via two stages, including:

First Processing,
At this stage do "distillation separates stratified petroleum fractions based on boiling point. Components of a higher boiling point will remain a liquid and drops down. While a lower boiling point will evaporate and rise to the top through sangkup-sangkup called sangkup bubble.

Secondary treatment,
At this stage a further process refined stratified by the following process:

1. Cracking
2. Extraction
3. Crystallization
4. cleanup of contamination


Gasoline
Gasoline composition of n - heptane and iso-octane, namely:

Substance Gasoline Additive

Tetra Ethyl Leat (TEL)

* The molecular formula Pb (C2H5) 4
* The formula

Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE)

* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 3Tersier Amil Methyl Ether (TAME)

* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 2 C2H5Metir Buthil Tertiary Ether (MTBE)

* The molecular formula CH3 O C (CH3) 3

Petrochemicals

Other than petroleum as a fuel as well as materials for the chemical industry is important in everyday life. Materials or products made from basic ingredients of oil and gas are called petrochemicals. Petrochemical materials can be classified: plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, pesticides, detergents, solvents, fertilizers, various types of drugs and vitamins.

Petrochemical process generally through three stages, namely:

1. Change the oil and gas into petrochemical ingredients
2. Changing the basic petrochemical materials into intermediate products, and
3. Changing the intermediate products into final products that can be utilized.

Almost all petrochemical products derived from the three basic types of materials, namely:

1. Olefin (alkene-alkene)
Olefin is the most important ethene (etilina), propene (propylene), butene (butylene) and butadiene.

CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH - CH3

Ethylene propylene

CH3 - CH = CH - CH3 CH2 = CH - CH = CH2

Butylene butadiene

2. Aromatic (benzene and its derivatives)
Aromatic most important is benzene (C6H6), totuena (C6H5CH3) and xylene (C6H4 (CH3) 2

3. Synthesis Gas
Synthetic gas called syn-gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). Syn-gas made from natural gas or LPG reaction through a process called reforming or partial oxidation stean.

Stean reforming reaction: CH4 (g) + H2O → CO (g) + 3H2 (g)

Partial oxidation reaction: 2CH4 (g) + O2 → 2CO (g) + 4H2 (g)

Petrochemicals from Olefins

Here are some of the petrochemical ethylene olefin with basic ingredients:

1. Polyethylene
Polyethylene is the most widely produced plastic are used as plastic bags and plastic wrappers / trash.

2. PVC
PVC is a plastic that is polivinilkiorida pipe makers (pralon).

3. Ethanol
Ethanol is an everyday material we know as the alcohol used for fuel or among other products.

Alcohol is made from ethylene:

CH2 = CH2 + H2O → CH3 - CH2OH

4. Ethylene glycol or glycols
Glycol is used as an antifreeze in a car radiator in cold climates.

Here are some of the petrochemical olefins with propylene base material.

5. Polypropylene
Polypropylene plastic is stronger than polyethylene. Type of polypropylene plastic used for plastic bags and a plastic strap.

6. Glycerol
This substance is used as an ingredient in cosmetics (moisturizers), the food industry and the materials to make explosives (nitroglycerine)

7. Isopropyl alcohol
This substance is used as the main material for petrochemical products such as acetone (a solvent, for example, to dissolve Kutek)

Petrochemical manufacturing using basic materials such as butadiene synthetic rubber is SBR (styrene-butadilena-rubber) and nylon -6.6, while those using the basic ingredients are isobutylene MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether)

Petrochemicals from Aromatic

The basic ingredients are the most important aromatics are benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). The basic ingredients are generally converted into styrene benzene, cumene, and cyclohexane

1. Styrene is used to make rubber sinetik
2. Cumene is used to make phenol, then phenol to make the adhesive
3. Cyclohexane is used primarily for making nylon
4. Benzene is used as a raw material for making detergents. The basic ingredients for toluene and xylene to make explosives (TNT), terephthalic acid (fiber fabric).

Petrochemical and gas-sinetik

Sinetik gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Several petrochemical examples of syn-gas as follows:

1. Ammonia (NH3)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)

Nitrogen gas from the air and hydrogen gas from the syn-gas. Ammonia is used to make fertilizer [CO (NH2) 2] urea, [(NH4) 2SO4]; ZA and (NH4NO3), ammonium nitrate.

2. Urea [CO (NH2) 2]

CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) → NH2COH4 (S)

NH2CONH4 (S) → CO (NH2) 2 (s) + H2O (g)

3. Methanol (CH3OH)

CO (g) + 2H3 (g) → CH3OH (g)

Most of the methanol is converted to formal-dehida and some are used to make fiber and fuel mixtures.

4. Formal dehida (HCHO)

CH3OH (g) → HCHO (g) + H2 (g)

Formal dehida in water known as formalin used to preserve biological preparations.

HYDROCARBON

          In chemistry, a hydrocarbon is a compound composed of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen atoms (H). The entire chain hydrocarbons having carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded to the chain. The term is used also as a sense of aliphatic hydrocarbons.
          Hydrocarbons are the simplest alkane, a hydrocarbon that contains only single covalent bonds. Hydrocarbons are compounds whose molecular structure consists of hydrogen and carbon. The simplest molecule of the alkane is methane. Methane is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, is the main component of natural gas.
          Hydrocarbons can be classified according to a variety of carbon-carbon bonds they contain. Hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon single bond has called saturated hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons with two or more carbon atoms having two or three bonds called unsaturated hydrocarbons.

           Properties Hydrocarbons (Nature Chemistry / Reactions)

• Chemical properties (Reactions) 

1. Reactions of alkanes Alkanes react quite difficult substances, so-called paraffin or affinity which means small. The most important reaction of alkanes is combustion, substitution, and cracking (cracking). 

•  Complete combustion of alkane combustion produces CO2 and H2O. Incomplete combustion of alkanes produces CO and H2O.
•  Substitution or change of alkanes daapt hydrogen atoms replaced by other atoms, especially halogen. Replacement of the hydrogen atom by atom or another group called substitution reaction. One of the most important of the substitution reaction are halogenated alkanes, alkane hidrogena the replacement of atoms with halogen atoms, especially chlorine. Chlorination (replacement of hydrogen atoms by chlorine atoms) can occur if the alkane is reacted with chlorine.
•   cracking or breaking the chain of carbon atoms into pieces shorter. Alkane cracking can occur when heated at high temperature and pressure without oxygen. Cracking alkanes produces alkenes, this reaction sehinnga used to make alkenes. Cracking can also be used to create hydrogen gas from alkanes. 

   

• Properties Hydrocarbons (Physical Properties) 

          We distinguish the properties of substances into the physical and chemical properties. Physical properties of these substances include physical conditions, such as shape, melting and boiling point, color, flavor, and consistency.

1. Melting and boiling points greater relative molecular (the longer the carbon chain) of alkanes and alkenes, the higher melting point, boiling point, and density. At room temperature (25 degrees Celsius), C1-C4 gaseous, next tribes liquid, while the high tribes from (C18H38) are solid. The same trend applies to the alkyne.
2. All hydrocarbon solubility in water sparingly soluble in water. They are more soluble in nonpolar solvents such as tetraklorometana (CCl4).

Based on the structure and classification HYDROCARBON TYPES COVALENT BONDS BETWEEN CARBON ATOM.

     based on the form of chains of carbon, hydrocarbons are classified into three, namely:

•    hidrokarbon aliphatic

     - alkanes
     - alkenes
     - alkyne

•    hidrokarbon alicyclic

•    hidrokarbon aroma

     by type of bonding between atoms

•    hidrokarbon saturated

•    hidrokarbon unsaturated

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

         Organic chemistry is the scientific study of branching chemistry on the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds. Organic compounds are constructed mainly by carbon and hydrogen, and may contain other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, halogens and sulfur.

          Organic chemistry as a science is generally agreed was initiated in 1828 with the organic synthesis of urea by Friedrich Woehler, who accidentally vaporize a solution of ammonium cyanate NH4OCN.

           Original definition of organic chemistry is derived from the misconception that all organic compounds must have come from living organisms, but it has been proved that there are some exceptions. In fact, life is also very dependent on inorganic chemistry, as an example, the enzyme is basing his work on transition metals such as iron and copper, as well as teeth and bone composition is a mixture of organic and inorganic senyama. Another example is the solution of HCl, this solution plays a major role in the process of digestion is almost all organisms (especially the higher organisms) using a solution of HCl to digest food, which is also classified in inorganic compounds. Regarding the element carbon, inorganic chemicals usually associated with the simple carbon compounds that do not contain bonds between carbon as oxides, salts, acids, acetylene, and minerals. But this does not mean that there is not a single carbon compounds in organic compounds such as methane and its derivatives.

         

IPK VS SUCCESS

High IPK Not Ensure Success?
GPA is the overall performance assessment mechanism of the students in the lecture system during the learning process. GPA stands for cumulative GPA. Is the cumulative value of IP (GPA), IP student achievement scores per semester, while the CPI is dikumulatifkan IP value. Assessment GPA has a scale from 0 to 4. Where the 0 is the lowest rating and 4 is the highest quality appraisals 0 = E 1 = D 2 = C 3 = B 4 = A. then multiply that value in Semester Credit Unit (SCU) subjects with a weight value; After everything is added together, then divide by the total credits taken in a semester.


I've followed the conclave deliberations BEM (Student Executive Board) at a college a few years ago, inspired by one of the students who denies any GPA requirement 3, 25 which is set according to the internal constitution of the student campus.

Exceptionable students also delivered my friend's very interesting, considering the capacity of participants to reach 50's people at the event showed high enthusiasm, plus some body president candidates highest on the internal organization of student organizations on campus are some of the cadres of internal and external college.

My friend exceptionable yangkira-issued statement about the essence of this kind, "for me, the GPA requirement was abolished, because there is no guarantee that candidates have a high GPA able to carry this organization forward and succeed and show the existence in the management later, although GPA 4.00 though, but there's a chance those with low GPA capable of doing such a thing, "he says.

After hearing the arguments the atmosphere of the room became silent for a moment and returned a debate, until the forum participants agreed that there should be a standardization of the CPI figures that students were able to demonstrate a balance GPA and organizational development. Dynamics fights perception is finally agreed figure forum GPA chairman candidate should be 3, 00 with considerations of objective and subjective.

From the above case frankly that what a friend of mine was given a contradictory perception, given the way an organization is at stake with the prospective student-led organization that will run the "government" in a college.

Not in this organization are the things that are at stake numbers on the pretext of credibility an institution, youth organizations, government agencies and companies.

But behind the above, many interesting stories to be studied, such as education requirements, social status, or character of a person. In advancing an institution, the attention of members and officers and steak holders an institution.

Given the Mind Set, academics, bureaucrats and politicians in this country need to look at the real reasons for what is experienced by many organizations from various viewpoints.


One reason for the comparison of the numbers does not necessarily guarantee success in a personal one, it is clearly visible when the power of creativity and effort from someone who shaped the real work can lead to different assumptions and assessments if the process can be carried out simultaneously, which means in practice and theory are Of course it can be very different.

So should we can understand the experience above, how many of them have a high GPA can only be a construction workers, janitors, and even turn away from what they had seen before. While other students are high GPA is not how it is able to become a businessman and a lot of new people incised achievements.

In essence, the size of the figures obtained only a subjective assessment only if it relates to the college with the ability to compete because there's only assessment in the form of communicative, argumentative, homework and exams are a little make refresifitas, so it does not produce a human being able to express what a real desire, and IPK will no longer should be a barometer to measure one's personal abilities. Well, it is definitely a high IPK does not guarantee success or the success of a person is not it?

MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

1. Planck's Quantum Theory of Radiation
In 1900 Planck proposed the quantum theory which states that the energy of an object can only be changed (increased or decreased) by a multiple of a unit of energy called quantum. Planck's law states that a quantum of energy is not fixed, but depends on the frequency of radiation.

E = h . v 

E = quantum energy (joule)

h = Planck constant (6,625 x 10^–34 joule sekon)

v = frequency radiation (sekon^–1)

ν = c / λ 

c = speed of light (3 x 10⁸ m.sekon^–1)

λ = wavelength (m)

Planck's law can be written in the form :  

E = (hc) / λ

2. Bohr Atomic Theory

Bohr's atomic theory dotted starting on the following assumptions.

1. Electrons surrounding the nucleus is at the energy level (trajectory) specific, so the electrons also have a certain energy.
2. Contrary to the theory of Maxwell's electrodynamics, for electrons moving in the trajectory does not emit energy in the form of radiation.
3. Electrons can move from energy level (path) to a low energy level (trajectory) is higher when the electron absorbs energy and vice versa can be moved from the energy levels (path) to a high energy level (trajectory) is lower when the energy release.

 

Figure 1.3 Bohr atom theory 

example:
- Track I have the energy level E1
- Scenic II has the energy level E2
- Track III has the energy level E3 and beyond
The amount of energy absorbed or emitted can be calculated from the following quantum theory.

DE = E2 – E1 = h v =(hc) / λ 

3. Modern Atomic Theory 

Now we will study the development of modern atomic theory based on the concept of wave mechanics. In 1900, Max Planck (1858-1947) suggested that light waves have particle properties, and the transfer of a direct air-electromagnetic radiation in the package or unit of energy called a quantum (asked in the Latin word which means what?). Planck's theory was proven by Albert Einstein (1879-1955) in 1905, who testified that the light waves composed of photons. Then in 1923, Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) explains that a particle, such as electrons, it has wave properties. Based on the concept of wave particle duality, the Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) and Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) in 1926 suggested that the position or location of an electron in an atom can not be determined exactly. We can only ensure the possibility of the location of the electron. As an analogy, on a fan (fan) which is being spun seen that the leaves of the fan that fills the entire field. We can not ensure that the location of a piece of fan blade at a given moment, but we can easily make sure where he might be found. Modern atomic theory explains that elektronelektron the atom occupies a space or "cloud" so-called orbital, which is the space where electrons are most likely to be found. Orbital is a certain energy levels in atoms. In 1928, Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958) suggested that each orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons. Electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels or specific skins. To compensate for the repulsive force between them, two electrons in one orbital is always rotated in the opposite direction. Some orbitals combine to form a group called the subshell. Subshell joined to form the skin. One is composed of skin-subshell subshell. Composed of a single subshell orbitals. Accommodate a maximum of two-electron orbital. 

  

My Question

Contrary to the theory of Maxwell's electrodynamics, for electrons moving in the trajectory does not emit energy in the form of radiation. Based on these quotations in the form of electrons emitted? 

4. Atom model of quantum mechanics

Atom model of quantum mechanics developed by Erwin Schrodinger (1926). Before Erwin Schrodinger, an expert from the German Werner Heisenberg developed the theory of quantum mechanics known as the uncertainty principle is "not possible to determined the position and momentum of an object carefully at the same time, which can determined is the probability of finding an electron at a certain distance from the nucleus ".  

Region of space around the core with the probability for electrons called orbitals. Shape and orbital energy levels defined by the Erwin Schrodinger Schrodinger.Erwin solve an equation for the wave function to describe the discovery of a possible limit of the electron in three dimensions. 

Schrodinger equation

x, y and z = Position in three dimensions
Y = Wavefunction
m = mass
ђ = H/2p where h = Plank constant, and p = 3.14
E = Total energy
V = Potential energy

Model of the atom with the orbital path of electrons is called the modern atomic model or atomic model of quantum mechanics is valid until today, as shown in the image below.

Current model of the atom or atomic model wave mechanics

 Shows the electron cloud around the nucleus where the probability of an electron. Orbitals describing the electron energy levels. Orbitals with energy levels of the same or nearly the same will form the sub-skin. Some sub-skin leather combine to form kulit.Dengan thus consists of several sub-skin and consists of several orbital subshell. Although the skin is the same position but not necessarily the same orbital position.

SPECIAL FEATURES MECHANICAL WAVE ATOM MODEL

1. The movement of electrons have wave properties, so the trajectory (orbit) is not stationary like the Bohr model, but following the completion of the square is called the orbital wave function (three-dimensional shape darikebolehjadian greatest discovery of the electron with an atom in certain circumstances).
2.  Orbital shapes and sizes depending on the price of the three numbers kuantumnya. (The electrons occupying the orbital quantum number is expressed in)
3.  Position as far as 0.529 electrons from the core H Armstrong by Bohr instead of something definite, but probable discovery of the electron is the greatest opportunity.

Chadwick trial

 

Weakness Modern Atom Model

Schrodinger wave equation can only be applied exactly to the particle in a box with a single electron and atom