Proteins are complex organic compounds of high molecular weight which are polymers of amino acid monomers are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Protein molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. Protein plays an important role in the structure and function of all living cells and viruses.
Its function is primarily protein is a cell structure forming elements, such as the hair, wool, kolgen, connective tissue, cell membranes, and others. Moreover, it can also function as an active proteins, such as enzymes, which act as catalysts in biochemical prses all cells. Protein enzymes are active besides hormones, hemoglobin, a protein that bound to the gene, tioksin, antibody / antigen and others.
Some characteristics of protein molecules is:
1. large molecular weight, thousands to millions, so it is a macromolecule.
2. generally consists of 20 different amino acids. Amino acid binding (covalently) to one another in the sequence variations are manifold, forming a polypeptide chain. Peptide bond is a bond between the α-carboxyl group of one amino acid with the α-amino group of another amino acid.
3. presence of other chemical bonds, leading to the formation of the arches of the polypeptide chain into three-dimensional structures of proteins. For instance, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic bonds (bonds apolar), ionic bonds or electrostatic and van der Waals bonding.
4. The structure is not stable on several factors such as pH, radiation, temperature, medium organic solvents, and detergents.
5. umumya reactive and highly specific, due to the presence of a reactive side groups and a unique arrangement makromolekulnya structure.
Various kinds of side groups is that of a cation, anion, hydroxyl aromatic, aliphatic hydroxyl, amines, amides, thiols and heterocyclic group.
The classification is based on the biochemistry of proteins in biological function.
1. Enzyme
An enzyme is a protein group of the largest and most important. Examples of enzymes: ribonuklese, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of RNA; cytochrome, involved in the process of moving electrons; tipsin, kataliator breaker certain peptide bonds in the polypeptide.
2. Protein Builders
Proteins serve as the building blocks of the structure. Some examples: wrapping viral protein, an envelope on the chromosome; glycoprotein, is supporting structure of the cell wall;
3. Protein Kontaktil
Is a class of proteins that play a role in the process of motion. For instance: myosin, filaments immobile element in the myofibrils; actin, filament elements engaged in myofibrils; dienin, shakes and hair found in the flagellum.
4. Protein Carrier
Has the ability to bind to specific molecules and transporting various substances through the blood stream. For example: hemoglobin, consisting of clusters of iron-containing compounds hame bound globin protein, functions as a carrier of oxygen in the blood of vertebrates; hemosianin, as an oxygen carrier in the blood of some kinds of invertebrates; serum albumin, fatty acid transporters in the blood; ceruloplasmin, copper ion transporters in the blood.
5. Protein Hormones
Some protein hormones are: insulin, glycated regulate metabolism; adrenokortikotrop, regulate the synthesis of corticosteroids; growth hormone, stimulates bone growth.
6. Equity Protein Toxins
Are toxic to animals high class: toxin of Clostridium botulinum, which causes food poisoning.
7. Protective Protein
Generally found in the blood of vertebrates. eg, antibodies, proteins formed if the antigen and the antigen is a foreign protein, can form complex compounds.
8. Protein Reserves
Saved for a variety of metabolic processes in the body. For example: ovalbumin, a protein contained padaputih eggs; zein, a protein in corn grain.
HEMOGLOBIN
Hemoglobin consists mostly of protein subunits, in turn, a large number of folded chains of amino acids called polypeptides different. Amino acid sequence of the polypeptide made by each cell, in turn determined by the stretch of DNA called genes. In all proteins, it is the sequence of amino acids that determine the nature and function of protein chemistry.
There is more than one hemoglobin gene. Amino acid sequence of the globin protein in hemoglobin usually differ between species. This difference grows with the evolutionary distance between species. For example, the most common hemoglobin sequences in humans and chimpanzees are nearly identical, differ by only one amino acid in both alpha and beta globin protein chains. This difference grows greater between species that are less closely related.
Even within a species, different variants of hemoglobin always exist, although one sequence is usually the "most common" one in each species. Mutations in the gene for hemoglobin protein in a species result in hemoglobin variants. Many mutant forms of hemoglobin cause no disease. Several mutant forms of hemoglobin, however, led to a group of hereditary diseases called hemoglobinopathies. The most famous hemoglobinopathy is sickle cell disease, which is the first human disease whose mechanism is understood at the molecular level. A set of (mostly) separate from a disease called thalassemia involves low production of normal hemoglobin and normal sometimes, through problems and mutations in globin gene regulation. All of these diseases result in anemia.
Variations in hemoglobin amino acid sequence, like other proteins, may be adaptive. For example, recent studies have shown genetic variants in deer mice that help explain how deer mice that live in the mountains are able to survive in the thin air that accompanies high altitudes. A researcher from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln found mutations in four different genes that can explain the difference between deer mice that live in the grassland plains versus mountains. After examining wild mice captured from both highlands and lowlands, it was found that: the genes of the two strains are "virtually identical-except for those who manage their hemoglobin oxygen-carrying capacity." "The genetic difference enables highland mice to make more efficient use of their oxygen", since less available at higher altitudes, such as in the mountains. Mammoth hemoglobin showing mutations that allow for the delivery of oxygen at lower temperatures, thus enabling mammoths to migrate to higher latitudes during the Pleistocene.
Hemoglobin (Hb) is synthesized in a complex series of steps. Heme part is synthesized in a series of steps in the mitochondria and cytosol immature red blood cells, while the globin protein parts are synthesized by ribosomes in the cytosol. Production of Hb continues in the cell during the early development of the proerythroblast to reticulocytes in the bone marrow. At this point, the nucleus is lost in mammalian red blood cells, but not in birds and other species. Even after losing the nucleus in mammals, residual ribosomal RNA allows further synthesis of Hb until the reticulocyte loses RNA soon after entering the blood vessels (this hemoglobin-synthetic RNA in fact gives the reticulocyte reticulated appearance and name). Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins.Myoglobin
Found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates, including humans, giving the muscle tissue gray or dark red different. It is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but not tetramer, but is monomer without cooperative binding. It is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.
Hemocyanin
The second most common oxygen-transporting protein found in nature, is found in the blood of many arthropods and molluscs. Uses copper prosthetic groups instead of iron heme groups and is blue when the oxygen.
Hemerythrin
Some marine invertebrates and a few species of annelid use of non-heme iron-containing protein to carry oxygen in their blood. Appears pink / purple when oxygen, clear when not.
Chlorocruorin
Found in many annelids, very similar to erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure. Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygen.
Vanabins
Also known as vanadium chromagens, they are found in the blood of sea squirts. No one ever thought to use the rare metal vanadium as a prosthetic group binds oxygen. However, although they do contain vanadium by preference, they apparently bind little oxygen, and thus have some other function, which has not been described (sea squirts also contain some hemoglobin). They can act as a poison.
Erythrocruorin
Found in annelids, including earthworms, it is a giant free-floating blood protein containing many dozens-perhaps hundreds-and-heme iron-bearing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular mass greater than 3.5 million daltons.
Pinnaglobin
Just look at the mollusc Pinna squamosa. Brown manganese porphyrin-based protein.
Leghemoglobin
In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by the heme iron-containing oxygen-binding protein. Specific enzyme protected is nitrogenase, which can reduce nitrogen gas in the presence of free oxygen.
Coboglobin
A synthetic cobalt-based porphyrin. Coboprotein color will appear when the oxygen, but yellow when in veins.
Use and Abuse Hemoglobin
In addition to oxygen transport, hemoglobin can bind and transport other molecules such as nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. Nitric oxide affects the blood vessel walls, causing them to relax. This in turn reduces blood pressure. Recent studies have shown that nitric oxide can bind to specific cysteine residues in hemoglobin and also to iron in the heme group, as shown in 1buw PDB entries. Thus, hemoglobin contribute to the regulation of blood pressure by distributing nitric oxide by blood. Carbon monoxide, on the other hand, is a poisonous gas. It easily replaces oxygen in the heme group, as seen in PDB entry 2hco and many others, forming a stable complex that is difficult to remove. This abuse of the heme binding and transport blocks of normal oxygen, suffocating the surrounding cells.
Artificial Blood
Blood transfusions have saved countless lives. However, the need for matching blood type, short life of stored blood, and the possibility of contamination are major concerns. An understanding of the workings of hemoglobin, based on decades of research into the biochemical and crystallographic structure of many, has prompted a search for blood substitutes and artificial blood. The most obvious approach is to use pure hemoglobin solution to replace lost blood. The main challenge is to maintain the hemoglobin protein chains four together. In the absence of the protective casing of red blood cells, four chain goes downhill fast. To avoid this problem, a novel hemoglobin molecule has been designed in which two of the four chains are physically connected together, as shown in 1c7d PDB entries. In this structure, two additional glycine residues form a relationship between the two chains, preventing their separation in solution.
Kamis, 01 November 2012
LIPIDS
Fat is one ester group of organic compounds found in many plants, animals, or humans and is very useful for human life fats are liquid at room temperature are called oils, fats while the term is usually used for the solid form. Generally derived from animal fats, while oil from plants. Some examples of fats and oils is beef fat, coconut oil, corn oil, and fish oil.
A. Structure and Nomenclature Formula Fat
Fats are esters of glycerol with carboxylic acids of high interest. Constituent fatty acids are called fatty acids. In fat, one glycerol molecule binds three molecules of fatty acids, therefore fat is a triglyceride. The general structure of fat molecules as shown in the illustration below:
In the fat structure above formula, R1-COOH,-COOH R2, and R3-COOH are fatty acid molecules attached to the glycerol.
Common names of fat is triglycerides. Naming fat starting with glyceryl followed by the name of fatty acids. example :
The fatty acids found in nature are palmitic acid (C15H31COOH), stearic acid (C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H33COOH), and linoleic acid (C17H29COOH).
. Types of Fatty Acids
Fat molecules formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. Therefore, the classification based on the types of fat over their constituent fatty acids. Based on the type of bond, the fatty acids are grouped into two, namely:
a. Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids, the fatty acids are all carbon atoms bond to form a single bond carbon chain (saturated). Example: lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid.
b. Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids, the fatty acids containing double bonds in the carbon chain.
Example: oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid.
Physical properties of fats
a. At room temperature, the animal fat in general is a solid, while the plants in the form of fat from liquid.
b. The fat has a high melting point of saturated fatty acids, whereas fat has a low melting point of unsaturated fatty acids. Example: Tristearin (esters of glycerol with three molecules of stearic acid) has a melting point of 71 ° C, whereas triolein (esters of glycerol with three molecules of oleic acid) has a melting point of -17 ° C.
c. Fats containing short-chain fatty acids dissolved in water, while fat contains long-chain fatty acids are not soluble in water.
d. All the fat soluble in chloroform and benzene. Alcohol heat is a good fat solvent
Use of Fats and Oils in Everyday Life
Fat or oil can be used for multiple purposes, including the following.
1. Energy source for the body
Fat foods or serve as a backup energy source. Fats are energy-rich foods. Combustion of 1 gram of fat produces about 9 kilocalories.
2. Materials for butter or margarine
Fat or oil can be turned into butter or margarine by hydrogenation.
3. Ingredients soap making
Soap can be made from a reaction between fats or oils with KOH or NaOH. Soap containing Na metal called hard soaps (reacting strongly to the skin) and is often called soap. While soap containing K metal called soft soap and in everyday life known as bath soap.
A. Structure and Nomenclature Formula Fat
Fats are esters of glycerol with carboxylic acids of high interest. Constituent fatty acids are called fatty acids. In fat, one glycerol molecule binds three molecules of fatty acids, therefore fat is a triglyceride. The general structure of fat molecules as shown in the illustration below:
Common names of fat is triglycerides. Naming fat starting with glyceryl followed by the name of fatty acids. example :
- Palmitic acid, also called heksadekanoik acid, is the major saturated fatty acids in meat and dairy products. Palmitic acid is the main component of the oil palm trees (palm oil and coconut oil). Retinyl palmitate is an antioxidant and a good source of vitamin A added to low-fat milk.
- Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid most commonly found in nature following the palmitic acid. Stearic acid is mainly used in the production of detergents, soaps, and cosmetics such as shampoo and shaving cream produk.Asam stearate are used to produce dietary supplements.
In fireworks, stearic acid is often used to coat metal powders such as aluminum and iron. This prevents oxidation, so the composition of which will be stored for long periods of time.
Stearic acid is a common lubricant for injection molding and pressing of ceramic powders. It is also used as a mold release for foam latex baked in a stone mold - Oleic acid is a fatty acid that is found in almost
all foodstuffs, both animals and plants. Oleic acid from animal
are found in the bone and fat in milk. Oleic acid plant
are found in the pulp and seeds.
function of oleic acid in the body:
- As a source of energy
-Is an antioxidant that works to inhibit cancer
-Lowers cholesterol
-As the solvent medium vitamin A, - Linoleic acid (LA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid used in the biosynthesis of arachidonic acid (AA) and thus some prostaglandins. It is found in the cell membrane lipids. It is abundant in many vegetable oils, comprising more than half (by weight) of poppy seeds, safflower, sunflower and corn oils.
Linoleic acid is a member of a group of essential fatty acids called omega-6 fatty acids are essential for the dietary needs of all mammals. Another group of essential fatty acids are omega-3 fatty acids, such as Alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-6 deficiency symptoms include dry hair, hair loss, and poor wound healing.
. Types of Fatty Acids
Fat molecules formed from glycerol and three fatty acids. Therefore, the classification based on the types of fat over their constituent fatty acids. Based on the type of bond, the fatty acids are grouped into two, namely:
a. Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids, the fatty acids are all carbon atoms bond to form a single bond carbon chain (saturated). Example: lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid.
b. Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids, the fatty acids containing double bonds in the carbon chain.
Example: oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid.
Physical properties of fats
a. At room temperature, the animal fat in general is a solid, while the plants in the form of fat from liquid.
b. The fat has a high melting point of saturated fatty acids, whereas fat has a low melting point of unsaturated fatty acids. Example: Tristearin (esters of glycerol with three molecules of stearic acid) has a melting point of 71 ° C, whereas triolein (esters of glycerol with three molecules of oleic acid) has a melting point of -17 ° C.
c. Fats containing short-chain fatty acids dissolved in water, while fat contains long-chain fatty acids are not soluble in water.
d. All the fat soluble in chloroform and benzene. Alcohol heat is a good fat solvent
Use of Fats and Oils in Everyday Life
Fat or oil can be used for multiple purposes, including the following.
1. Energy source for the body
Fat foods or serve as a backup energy source. Fats are energy-rich foods. Combustion of 1 gram of fat produces about 9 kilocalories.
2. Materials for butter or margarine
Fat or oil can be turned into butter or margarine by hydrogenation.
3. Ingredients soap making
Soap can be made from a reaction between fats or oils with KOH or NaOH. Soap containing Na metal called hard soaps (reacting strongly to the skin) and is often called soap. While soap containing K metal called soft soap and in everyday life known as bath soap.
Senin, 22 Oktober 2012
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF LIFE
In this life, to be able to continue to live and thrive, organisms must be able to do everything that will be able to maintain their lives. Organisms in demand to be able to exchange matter and energy with the environment, transform matter and energy into a different form, responding to any changes in their environment, grow and reproduce. In this case there are organic compounds that play a major role in it. These compounds are called macromolecules.
Macromolecules is a combination of many similar smaller molecules polymerized into a chain structure. In living organisms, there are three main types of macromolecules that controls all the activities and determine what an organism will do and be. Macromolecules that are proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
In this article I specialize discussion on proteins.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. With 20 different fundamental amino acids as building blocks, an extraordinarily large variety of proteins can be biosynthesized under the direction of the genetic code.
Structure of Amino Acids
A. Fundamental Structure - An Amine and An Acid
As the term amino acid describes, each monomer has an amine group and a carboxylic acid group attached to a prochiral carbon. In addition side chains can also be present. These range from a simple
hydrogen to long carbon chains with functional groups.
B. Ionization of Amino Acids
The amine and carboxyl groups exhibit typical acid-base behavior which is pH-dependent. At low pH both groups are protonated: the amine group has a plus (+) charge and the carboxyl is neutral (0). As the pH rises the carboxyl loses its proton becoming negatively charged (-). At higher pH values the amine (+) deprotonates to produce a neutral amine (0). The result of this sequential deprotonation is a series of charged forms ranging from + to 0 to -. If the side chains are capable of acid-base reactions, the number of possible charged forms depends upon the number and types of amino acids present,
the pH, and the pKa of each ionizable group. This is true of proteins as well as amino acids. The pH at which the molecule has a net charge of zero, the zwitterion form, is called the pI or isoelectric
(isoelectronic) state. The pI can be calculated by taking the average of the two pKa values on either side of the zwitterion form. At a pH lower than the pI the molecule will be in a net + charged form while at a pH greater than the pI it will be in a net - charged form. Charged forms can be separated in an electric field, a process known as electrophoresis.
C. The Common Amino Acids
There are 20 common amino acids which can be grouped by the nature of the R side chain. Our groups are acidic, basic, alkyl, polar, aromatic, sulfur-containing, and cyclic.
The Peptide Bond: Formation of Polypeptides and Proteins
Polypeptides and proteins are the products of amide, or peptide, bond formation between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxyl of another.
The Hierarchy of Protein Structure
A. Primary Protein Structure - The Sequence of Amino Acids
The sequence of amino acids in the polymer, from the free amino- or Nterminus to the free carboxyl- or C-terminus, is called the primary (10) structure of a protein. This sequence is dictated by the genetic code.
B. Secondary Protein Structure - Helices and Pleated Sheets
A peptide bond has partial double bond character that makes it planar; the geometry is usually trans. As the polypeptide chain grows, the peptide bond can participate in hydrogen bonding - amide hydrogen to carbonyl oxygen. Because of the geometry of the peptide bond, this hydrogen bonding goes on between amino acids which are distant from each other. Organized, folded secondary (20) structures are formed. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are the two most common secondary structures. In the alpha helix hydrogen bonding usually occurs between the peptide bonds of four amino acids distant from each other. Beta structure involves the polypeptide chain in its fully extended form coming back on itself to hydrogen bond side-to-side. The two polypeptide strands in beta structures may be parallel or antiparallel to each other.
Secondary structures are, in turn, organized into domains, or supersecondary structures. Collagen, which is the most abundant protein of the body, has unique primary and secondary structures. A high glycine and proline content leads to fairly rigid, kinked strands which can intertwine in a triple helical structure held together by hydrogen bonding between strands. The collagen helices aggregate to form skin, bone and connective tissue.
C. Protein Tertiary Structure
Side chains of the amino acids participate in tertiary (30) structure, that is, they stabilize the overall conformation of the protein molecule. The forces which hold tertiary structure together include covalent (disulfide bridges) and noncovalent (hydrogen bonding, salt bridge, hydrophobic) interactions. Shapes of tertiary structure subunits can be globular or fibrous.
D. Quaternary Protein Structure - Association of Subunits
Many proteins have more than one folded subunit, linked by the same types of noncovalent forces which hold 30 structure together. All of the subunits are needed for the protein to function properly. This is known as quaternary (40) structure.
E. Complex Proteins - Proteins Plus
All of the interactions mentioned above are integral parts of the simple structure of a protein. In addition proteins may have cofactors such as metal ions, carbohydrates or lipids, and/or organic molecules associated with them. This makes the proteins complex. Myoglobin and hemoglobin are examples of related complex proteins. Myoglobin has a single globular protein subunit complexed with an organic heterocyclic system known as heme. The heme in turn holds an iron (II) ion which
can bind molecular oxygen, O2. All of these components contribute to the function of myoglobin: the storage of oxygen in muscle tissue. Hemoglobin is related to myoglobin both structurally and functionally. It contains four myoglobin-type subunits each of which has an iron(II)- heme complex that can bind O2. However, the four subunits interact cooperatively in order to transport oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the cells.
F. Denaturation
The forces which hold a protein molecule together can be disrupted by changes in temperature and pH as well as by organic solvents and mechanical manipulation. This is known as denaturation.
The protein itself has many functions in our bodies. Basically support the presence of protein each cell of the body, the immune process. Every adult should consume at least 1 gram of protein per kg of body weight. The need for protein increases in women who are pregnant and athletes.
Protein deficiency can be fatal. Hair loss (Hair consists of 97-100% of the protein-Keratin). The worst was called kwashiorkor, a protein deficiency disease. Usually in small children who are suffering, can be seen from the name of malnutrition, caused by the filtration of water in the blood vessels resulting in Odem. Other symptoms that can be recognized are: hipotonus, growth disorders, fatty liver. Ongoing shortage caused berkibat marasmus and death.
Protein obtained from our food. Protein in the digestive system will be broken down into peptide-peptide structurally simpler composed of amino acids. This is done with the help of enzymes. The human body requires a 9 amino acids. That is nine amino acids can not be synthesized by the body essential, while some amino acids can be synthesized alone or essential by the body. Total of 21 amino acids. After absorption in the intestine it will be given to the blood. Blood carries amino acids to every cell of the body. Code for essential amino acids can not be synthesized by the DNA. This is called DNAtranskripsi. Then, because the transcription process further ribosomes or endoplasmic reticulum, known as translation.
Advantage Protein is a source of energy, play a role in the formation and repair of cells and tissues, the synthesis of hormones, enzymes, and antibodies as well as regulating the levels of acid-base balance in the cell.
Macromolecules is a combination of many similar smaller molecules polymerized into a chain structure. In living organisms, there are three main types of macromolecules that controls all the activities and determine what an organism will do and be. Macromolecules that are proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
In this article I specialize discussion on proteins.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. With 20 different fundamental amino acids as building blocks, an extraordinarily large variety of proteins can be biosynthesized under the direction of the genetic code.
Structure of Amino Acids
A. Fundamental Structure - An Amine and An Acid
As the term amino acid describes, each monomer has an amine group and a carboxylic acid group attached to a prochiral carbon. In addition side chains can also be present. These range from a simple
hydrogen to long carbon chains with functional groups.
B. Ionization of Amino Acids
The amine and carboxyl groups exhibit typical acid-base behavior which is pH-dependent. At low pH both groups are protonated: the amine group has a plus (+) charge and the carboxyl is neutral (0). As the pH rises the carboxyl loses its proton becoming negatively charged (-). At higher pH values the amine (+) deprotonates to produce a neutral amine (0). The result of this sequential deprotonation is a series of charged forms ranging from + to 0 to -. If the side chains are capable of acid-base reactions, the number of possible charged forms depends upon the number and types of amino acids present,
the pH, and the pKa of each ionizable group. This is true of proteins as well as amino acids. The pH at which the molecule has a net charge of zero, the zwitterion form, is called the pI or isoelectric
(isoelectronic) state. The pI can be calculated by taking the average of the two pKa values on either side of the zwitterion form. At a pH lower than the pI the molecule will be in a net + charged form while at a pH greater than the pI it will be in a net - charged form. Charged forms can be separated in an electric field, a process known as electrophoresis.
C. The Common Amino Acids
There are 20 common amino acids which can be grouped by the nature of the R side chain. Our groups are acidic, basic, alkyl, polar, aromatic, sulfur-containing, and cyclic.
The Peptide Bond: Formation of Polypeptides and Proteins
Polypeptides and proteins are the products of amide, or peptide, bond formation between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxyl of another.
The Hierarchy of Protein Structure
A. Primary Protein Structure - The Sequence of Amino Acids
The sequence of amino acids in the polymer, from the free amino- or Nterminus to the free carboxyl- or C-terminus, is called the primary (10) structure of a protein. This sequence is dictated by the genetic code.
B. Secondary Protein Structure - Helices and Pleated Sheets
A peptide bond has partial double bond character that makes it planar; the geometry is usually trans. As the polypeptide chain grows, the peptide bond can participate in hydrogen bonding - amide hydrogen to carbonyl oxygen. Because of the geometry of the peptide bond, this hydrogen bonding goes on between amino acids which are distant from each other. Organized, folded secondary (20) structures are formed. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are the two most common secondary structures. In the alpha helix hydrogen bonding usually occurs between the peptide bonds of four amino acids distant from each other. Beta structure involves the polypeptide chain in its fully extended form coming back on itself to hydrogen bond side-to-side. The two polypeptide strands in beta structures may be parallel or antiparallel to each other.
Secondary structures are, in turn, organized into domains, or supersecondary structures. Collagen, which is the most abundant protein of the body, has unique primary and secondary structures. A high glycine and proline content leads to fairly rigid, kinked strands which can intertwine in a triple helical structure held together by hydrogen bonding between strands. The collagen helices aggregate to form skin, bone and connective tissue.
C. Protein Tertiary Structure
Side chains of the amino acids participate in tertiary (30) structure, that is, they stabilize the overall conformation of the protein molecule. The forces which hold tertiary structure together include covalent (disulfide bridges) and noncovalent (hydrogen bonding, salt bridge, hydrophobic) interactions. Shapes of tertiary structure subunits can be globular or fibrous.
D. Quaternary Protein Structure - Association of Subunits
Many proteins have more than one folded subunit, linked by the same types of noncovalent forces which hold 30 structure together. All of the subunits are needed for the protein to function properly. This is known as quaternary (40) structure.
E. Complex Proteins - Proteins Plus
All of the interactions mentioned above are integral parts of the simple structure of a protein. In addition proteins may have cofactors such as metal ions, carbohydrates or lipids, and/or organic molecules associated with them. This makes the proteins complex. Myoglobin and hemoglobin are examples of related complex proteins. Myoglobin has a single globular protein subunit complexed with an organic heterocyclic system known as heme. The heme in turn holds an iron (II) ion which
can bind molecular oxygen, O2. All of these components contribute to the function of myoglobin: the storage of oxygen in muscle tissue. Hemoglobin is related to myoglobin both structurally and functionally. It contains four myoglobin-type subunits each of which has an iron(II)- heme complex that can bind O2. However, the four subunits interact cooperatively in order to transport oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the cells.
F. Denaturation
The forces which hold a protein molecule together can be disrupted by changes in temperature and pH as well as by organic solvents and mechanical manipulation. This is known as denaturation.
The protein itself has many functions in our bodies. Basically support the presence of protein each cell of the body, the immune process. Every adult should consume at least 1 gram of protein per kg of body weight. The need for protein increases in women who are pregnant and athletes.
Protein deficiency can be fatal. Hair loss (Hair consists of 97-100% of the protein-Keratin). The worst was called kwashiorkor, a protein deficiency disease. Usually in small children who are suffering, can be seen from the name of malnutrition, caused by the filtration of water in the blood vessels resulting in Odem. Other symptoms that can be recognized are: hipotonus, growth disorders, fatty liver. Ongoing shortage caused berkibat marasmus and death.
Protein obtained from our food. Protein in the digestive system will be broken down into peptide-peptide structurally simpler composed of amino acids. This is done with the help of enzymes. The human body requires a 9 amino acids. That is nine amino acids can not be synthesized by the body essential, while some amino acids can be synthesized alone or essential by the body. Total of 21 amino acids. After absorption in the intestine it will be given to the blood. Blood carries amino acids to every cell of the body. Code for essential amino acids can not be synthesized by the DNA. This is called DNAtranskripsi. Then, because the transcription process further ribosomes or endoplasmic reticulum, known as translation.
Advantage Protein is a source of energy, play a role in the formation and repair of cells and tissues, the synthesis of hormones, enzymes, and antibodies as well as regulating the levels of acid-base balance in the cell.
Sabtu, 06 Oktober 2012
HYDROCARBON AROMATIC
An aromatic hydrocarbon or arena (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic.
Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom.
*aromatic substitution
In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid.
How these carcinogens cause cancer now began to unfold. To eliminate hydrocarbons, mengoksidasinya body to be more soluble in water, making it easier excreted. Metabolic oxidation product appears to be the major cause of cancer. For example, one of the most potent carcinogens of this type is benzo [a] pirena. Enzymatic oxidation converts it into diol-epoxide as shown in the figure below.
Diol-epoxide is then reacted with the cell's DNA, causing mutations that ultimately prevents cells reproduce normally.
Benzene is highly toxic (toxic) to humans and can cause severe liver damage, but toluene, though not dangerous, is much less toxic. How might these two similar compounds behave differently? To eliminate benzene from the body, must be in cinci aromatic oxidation, and this oxidation intermediates of a destructive nature. However, the side chain methyl of toluene can be oxidized to produce benzoic acid, which can be excreted. Intermediates in this process can not cause health problems.
While some chemicals can cause cancer, other substances can change or heal. Many substances that can prevent cancer growth, and assessment of cancer chemotherapy has been widely sumbangnya human health.
A benzene ring structure of the molecule is made when six carbon atoms connected to each other in the ring related. Each carbon atom has four electrons, two electrons combine with neighboring carbon atoms, while one went to the hydrogen atom. The fourth is what is known as the delocalized electrons, which means that it is not directly associated with a particular atom. Benzene ring is often taken as a hexagonal shape with a circle in the middle to represent the electron is delocalized. Benzene occurs to form highly toxic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Jumat, 05 Oktober 2012
HYDROGEN DERIVATIVES
Molecules of organic compounds can be thought of as a hydrocarbon molecule in which one or more atoms of hydrogen (H) atoms replaced by a new one (other than C) or groups of atoms (clusters). Such molecules referred to as derivatives of hydrocarbons and atom-atom or group that replaces H referred to as the functional groups of molecules of ethane (CH3-CH3) is replaced with a functional group-OH CH3-CH2OH is referred to as alcohol.
Functional Groups are groups that can determine the nature of a substitute for carbon compounds.
- Alkanol (Alcohol) R-OH
* Manufacture:
Alkyl halides Bases + -> + alkanol halide compounds
* Nomenclature alkanol
1. Main chain is the longest chain containing the OH group
2. OH group must be the smallest number
2. alkoxy alkanes (ether) R-OR '
* Manufacture:
Williamson synthesis:
Alkanoic Sodium Alkyl halide + -> + Alkanes alkoxy Sodium Halides
* Alkoxy alkane nomenclature
1. If the alkyl group is different, so that C is small as alkoxy.
2. Alkoxy group in the smallest number
3. Alkanal (aldehyde) R-COH
* Construction:
Oxidation of primary alkanol
formic acid alkyl esters with Grignard reagents
* Nomenclature:
Cluster CHO always calculated as the number one
4. alkanon (ketones) R-COR '
* manufacture:
oxidation of secondary alkanol
* Nomenclature Alkanon:
1. Longest chain with kabonil CO group is the major chains.
2. CO group must be the smallest number
5. alkanoic acids (carboxylic acids) R-COOH
* manufacture:
hydrolysis of alkyl alkanoic
oxidation of primary alkanol
* Alkanoic acid nomenclature:
COOH group is always the number one.
6. alkyl alkanoic (ester)
* manufacture:
alkanoic acid esterification is the reaction of the alkanol
* alkanoic acid nomenclature
Cluster alkilnya always bonded to O
Senin, 01 Oktober 2012
ANSWER OF THE QUESTION
- effects on fruit ripening ethylene gas
The answer : Ethylene is a volatile chemical compounds produced during the cooking process, especially bebuahan crops and vegetables. In agriculture ethylene is used as an astringent fruit cooking. Ethylene affects fruit ripening by encouraging hoarding flour and sugar solution.
Basically affect ethylene climacteric fruit and nonklimakterik. The difference in fruit ethylene nonklimakterik only affects the respiration, but did not stimulate the growth of endogenous ethylene and fruit ripening. While on climacteric affects everything. Ethylene is an endogenous ethylene dihasilkanoleh ripe fruit by itself can stimulate ripening of other fruits.
The process of fruit ripening is often associated with a series of changes that can be seen meluputi color, aroma, konsisitensi, and flavor and aroma. The combination of these attributes will contribute to the possibility of the fruit good to eat. But with the rapid pace of ripening fruit, the fruit is also fast towards destruction or decay. - in one group, why the C atom can bond set out for one, two and three, while the other atoms can not be.
The number of carbon compounds is currently more than the number of non-carbon compounds. DAPT forming carbon compounds setabil and huge numbers, because the element carbon has several distinctive sifaty, among others: \
1. In these compounds, elemental carbon to form four pairs of electrons in fellowship with other atoms so that the formation was complete octet-formation in the absence of electron pairs bebasatau the empty orbitals. That's because they stable carbon compounds when viewed from the point kinetic.
2. Elemental carbon can form chemical bonds are strong, both as a single bond, a double bond or a double three. This is evident from the amount of the bond energy, we can see below:
Single bonds: C - C bond Waterwheel: + 356 kJ 1/mol
Bond: C = C bond energy 598kJ + 1/mol
Three double bonds: C = C bond energy: 813 + Kj 1/mol
Single bonds: C - H bond energy: 416 kJ + 1/mol
Generally compounds - carbon compounds when exposed to the air becomes unstable. This was evident when the compound - burning carbon compounds directly affected by the exothermic reaction. So carbon compounds are kinetically stable, but not necessarily energetically stable, because if a carbon compound exposed to air so he immediately reacted. There are exceptions when the methane comes from natural gas when exposed to air indirect fire, but it must be heated first, due to the reaction of high activation energy needed. So the mix is not going to react before being given energy by heating it first.
3. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, valence electrons because it has n4. In compounds C atoms form bonds with sp 3 hybridization with single bonds, but not for compounds containing double bonds.
4. Atom - carbon atoms can hold katenasi the ability to form a carbon chain. The carbon chain may be open or ring and branched or straight. The result of that is the emergence katenasi isomeri events, which are substances - chemicals that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum is also dubbed as the black gold, is a thick liquid, dark brown or greenish flammable, which is in the upper layers of the few areas in the earth's crust. Petroleum consists of a complex mixture of different hydrocarbons, the majority of the alkane series, but vary in appearance, composition, and purity. Oil extracted from oil wells in the oil mines. Location of the wells is obtained after going through the process of geological studies, sediment analysis, and the structure of the source code, and various studies lainnya.Setelah, the Earth will be processed in oil refineries where oil and split the results based on the boiling point to produce a wide range of fuels, from gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and other chemical reagents needed to make plastics and pesticides obatan.Minyak Earth used to produce a wide range of goods and material human needs.
Petroleum Establishment
The process of petroleum formation is described by two theories, namely:
Inorganic Theory
Inorganic theory proposed by Berthelok (1866) which states that petroleum derived and the reaction of calcium carbide, CaC2 (and the reaction between carbonate rocks and alkali metals) and water produces acetylene which can be turned into oil at high temperature and pressure.
Alkali → CaC2 CaCO3 + HO + HC = CH → → Petroleum
Theory of Organic
Organic theory proposed by Engker (1911) which states that petroleum is formed from the weathering and decomposition of anaerobic micro-organisms (microorganisms) from marine plants in porous rocks.
Composition of Petroleum
The composition of petroleum are classified into four groups, namely:
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
* Known as alkanes or paraffin
* The presence of straight-chain as the main component (the highest), while the less branched chain
* Compounds authors include:
1. Methane CH4
2. ethane CH3 CH3
3. propane CH3 CH2 CH3
4. butane CH3 (CH2) 2 CH3
5. n-heptane, CH3 (CH2) 5 CH3
6. iso octane CH3 - C (CH 3) 2 CH 2 CH (CH3) 2
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes)
* Known as alkenes
* Its existence is only slightly
Compounds constituent:
1. Ethene, CH2 CH2
2. Propene, CH 3 CH 2 CH
3. Butene, CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH
Cyclic saturated hydrocarbon chain (cycloalkanes)
* Known as cycloalkanes or naftena
* Existence less than alkanes
* Compounds constituent:
1.Siklopropana
2.Siklobutana
3. Cyclopentane
4. Siklopheksana
Aromatic hydrocarbons
* Known as a series of aromatic
* Its existence as a minor component / bit
* Compound formulation:
1.Naftalena
2.Antrasena
3. Benzene
4. Toluene
Other Compounds
* Existence is very little
* Compounds that may be present in petroleum is sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and organo metallic (very small)
Petroleum Processing
Crude oil gained from drilling a thick black liquid that utilization should be processed first. Petroleum drilling in Indonesia, located on the north coast of Java (Cepu, Wonokromo, Cirebon), Sumatra (Aceh, Riau), Kalimantan (Tarakan, Balikpapan) and Irian (Papua). Petroleum processing via two stages, including:
First Processing,
At this stage do "distillation separates stratified petroleum fractions based on boiling point. Components of a higher boiling point will remain a liquid and drops down. While a lower boiling point will evaporate and rise to the top through sangkup-sangkup called sangkup bubble.
Secondary treatment,
At this stage a further process refined stratified by the following process:
1. Cracking
2. Extraction
3. Crystallization
4. cleanup of contamination
Gasoline
Gasoline composition of n - heptane and iso-octane, namely:
Substance Gasoline Additive
Tetra Ethyl Leat (TEL)
* The molecular formula Pb (C2H5) 4
* The formula
Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE)
* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 3Tersier Amil Methyl Ether (TAME)
* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 2 C2H5Metir Buthil Tertiary Ether (MTBE)
* The molecular formula CH3 O C (CH3) 3
Petrochemicals
Other than petroleum as a fuel as well as materials for the chemical industry is important in everyday life. Materials or products made from basic ingredients of oil and gas are called petrochemicals. Petrochemical materials can be classified: plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, pesticides, detergents, solvents, fertilizers, various types of drugs and vitamins.
Petrochemical process generally through three stages, namely:
1. Change the oil and gas into petrochemical ingredients
2. Changing the basic petrochemical materials into intermediate products, and
3. Changing the intermediate products into final products that can be utilized.
Almost all petrochemical products derived from the three basic types of materials, namely:
1. Olefin (alkene-alkene)
Olefin is the most important ethene (etilina), propene (propylene), butene (butylene) and butadiene.
CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH - CH3
Ethylene propylene
CH3 - CH = CH - CH3 CH2 = CH - CH = CH2
Butylene butadiene
2. Aromatic (benzene and its derivatives)
Aromatic most important is benzene (C6H6), totuena (C6H5CH3) and xylene (C6H4 (CH3) 2
3. Synthesis Gas
Synthetic gas called syn-gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). Syn-gas made from natural gas or LPG reaction through a process called reforming or partial oxidation stean.
Stean reforming reaction: CH4 (g) + H2O → CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
Partial oxidation reaction: 2CH4 (g) + O2 → 2CO (g) + 4H2 (g)
Petrochemicals from Olefins
Here are some of the petrochemical ethylene olefin with basic ingredients:
1. Polyethylene
Polyethylene is the most widely produced plastic are used as plastic bags and plastic wrappers / trash.
2. PVC
PVC is a plastic that is polivinilkiorida pipe makers (pralon).
3. Ethanol
Ethanol is an everyday material we know as the alcohol used for fuel or among other products.
Alcohol is made from ethylene:
CH2 = CH2 + H2O → CH3 - CH2OH
4. Ethylene glycol or glycols
Glycol is used as an antifreeze in a car radiator in cold climates.
Here are some of the petrochemical olefins with propylene base material.
5. Polypropylene
Polypropylene plastic is stronger than polyethylene. Type of polypropylene plastic used for plastic bags and a plastic strap.
6. Glycerol
This substance is used as an ingredient in cosmetics (moisturizers), the food industry and the materials to make explosives (nitroglycerine)
7. Isopropyl alcohol
This substance is used as the main material for petrochemical products such as acetone (a solvent, for example, to dissolve Kutek)
Petrochemical manufacturing using basic materials such as butadiene synthetic rubber is SBR (styrene-butadilena-rubber) and nylon -6.6, while those using the basic ingredients are isobutylene MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether)
Petrochemicals from Aromatic
The basic ingredients are the most important aromatics are benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). The basic ingredients are generally converted into styrene benzene, cumene, and cyclohexane
1. Styrene is used to make rubber sinetik
2. Cumene is used to make phenol, then phenol to make the adhesive
3. Cyclohexane is used primarily for making nylon
4. Benzene is used as a raw material for making detergents. The basic ingredients for toluene and xylene to make explosives (TNT), terephthalic acid (fiber fabric).
Petrochemical and gas-sinetik
Sinetik gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Several petrochemical examples of syn-gas as follows:
1. Ammonia (NH3)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
Nitrogen gas from the air and hydrogen gas from the syn-gas. Ammonia is used to make fertilizer [CO (NH2) 2] urea, [(NH4) 2SO4]; ZA and (NH4NO3), ammonium nitrate.
2. Urea [CO (NH2) 2]
CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) → NH2COH4 (S)
NH2CONH4 (S) → CO (NH2) 2 (s) + H2O (g)
3. Methanol (CH3OH)
CO (g) + 2H3 (g) → CH3OH (g)
Most of the methanol is converted to formal-dehida and some are used to make fiber and fuel mixtures.
4. Formal dehida (HCHO)
CH3OH (g) → HCHO (g) + H2 (g)
Formal dehida in water known as formalin used to preserve biological preparations.
Petroleum Establishment
The process of petroleum formation is described by two theories, namely:
Inorganic Theory
Inorganic theory proposed by Berthelok (1866) which states that petroleum derived and the reaction of calcium carbide, CaC2 (and the reaction between carbonate rocks and alkali metals) and water produces acetylene which can be turned into oil at high temperature and pressure.
Alkali → CaC2 CaCO3 + HO + HC = CH → → Petroleum
Theory of Organic
Organic theory proposed by Engker (1911) which states that petroleum is formed from the weathering and decomposition of anaerobic micro-organisms (microorganisms) from marine plants in porous rocks.
Composition of Petroleum
The composition of petroleum are classified into four groups, namely:
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)
* Known as alkanes or paraffin
* The presence of straight-chain as the main component (the highest), while the less branched chain
* Compounds authors include:
1. Methane CH4
2. ethane CH3 CH3
3. propane CH3 CH2 CH3
4. butane CH3 (CH2) 2 CH3
5. n-heptane, CH3 (CH2) 5 CH3
6. iso octane CH3 - C (CH 3) 2 CH 2 CH (CH3) 2
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes)
* Known as alkenes
* Its existence is only slightly
Compounds constituent:
1. Ethene, CH2 CH2
2. Propene, CH 3 CH 2 CH
3. Butene, CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH
Cyclic saturated hydrocarbon chain (cycloalkanes)
* Known as cycloalkanes or naftena
* Existence less than alkanes
* Compounds constituent:
1.Siklopropana
2.Siklobutana
3. Cyclopentane
4. Siklopheksana
Aromatic hydrocarbons
* Known as a series of aromatic
* Its existence as a minor component / bit
* Compound formulation:
1.Naftalena
2.Antrasena
3. Benzene
4. Toluene
Other Compounds
* Existence is very little
* Compounds that may be present in petroleum is sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and organo metallic (very small)
Petroleum Processing
Crude oil gained from drilling a thick black liquid that utilization should be processed first. Petroleum drilling in Indonesia, located on the north coast of Java (Cepu, Wonokromo, Cirebon), Sumatra (Aceh, Riau), Kalimantan (Tarakan, Balikpapan) and Irian (Papua). Petroleum processing via two stages, including:
First Processing,
At this stage do "distillation separates stratified petroleum fractions based on boiling point. Components of a higher boiling point will remain a liquid and drops down. While a lower boiling point will evaporate and rise to the top through sangkup-sangkup called sangkup bubble.
Secondary treatment,
At this stage a further process refined stratified by the following process:
1. Cracking
2. Extraction
3. Crystallization
4. cleanup of contamination
Gasoline
Gasoline composition of n - heptane and iso-octane, namely:
Substance Gasoline Additive
Tetra Ethyl Leat (TEL)
* The molecular formula Pb (C2H5) 4
* The formula
Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE)
* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 3Tersier Amil Methyl Ether (TAME)
* The molecular formula CH 3 OC (CH3) 2 C2H5Metir Buthil Tertiary Ether (MTBE)
* The molecular formula CH3 O C (CH3) 3
Petrochemicals
Other than petroleum as a fuel as well as materials for the chemical industry is important in everyday life. Materials or products made from basic ingredients of oil and gas are called petrochemicals. Petrochemical materials can be classified: plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, pesticides, detergents, solvents, fertilizers, various types of drugs and vitamins.
Petrochemical process generally through three stages, namely:
1. Change the oil and gas into petrochemical ingredients
2. Changing the basic petrochemical materials into intermediate products, and
3. Changing the intermediate products into final products that can be utilized.
Almost all petrochemical products derived from the three basic types of materials, namely:
1. Olefin (alkene-alkene)
Olefin is the most important ethene (etilina), propene (propylene), butene (butylene) and butadiene.
CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH - CH3
Ethylene propylene
CH3 - CH = CH - CH3 CH2 = CH - CH = CH2
Butylene butadiene
2. Aromatic (benzene and its derivatives)
Aromatic most important is benzene (C6H6), totuena (C6H5CH3) and xylene (C6H4 (CH3) 2
3. Synthesis Gas
Synthetic gas called syn-gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). Syn-gas made from natural gas or LPG reaction through a process called reforming or partial oxidation stean.
Stean reforming reaction: CH4 (g) + H2O → CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
Partial oxidation reaction: 2CH4 (g) + O2 → 2CO (g) + 4H2 (g)
Petrochemicals from Olefins
Here are some of the petrochemical ethylene olefin with basic ingredients:
1. Polyethylene
Polyethylene is the most widely produced plastic are used as plastic bags and plastic wrappers / trash.
2. PVC
PVC is a plastic that is polivinilkiorida pipe makers (pralon).
3. Ethanol
Ethanol is an everyday material we know as the alcohol used for fuel or among other products.
Alcohol is made from ethylene:
CH2 = CH2 + H2O → CH3 - CH2OH
4. Ethylene glycol or glycols
Glycol is used as an antifreeze in a car radiator in cold climates.
Here are some of the petrochemical olefins with propylene base material.
5. Polypropylene
Polypropylene plastic is stronger than polyethylene. Type of polypropylene plastic used for plastic bags and a plastic strap.
6. Glycerol
This substance is used as an ingredient in cosmetics (moisturizers), the food industry and the materials to make explosives (nitroglycerine)
7. Isopropyl alcohol
This substance is used as the main material for petrochemical products such as acetone (a solvent, for example, to dissolve Kutek)
Petrochemical manufacturing using basic materials such as butadiene synthetic rubber is SBR (styrene-butadilena-rubber) and nylon -6.6, while those using the basic ingredients are isobutylene MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether)
Petrochemicals from Aromatic
The basic ingredients are the most important aromatics are benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). The basic ingredients are generally converted into styrene benzene, cumene, and cyclohexane
1. Styrene is used to make rubber sinetik
2. Cumene is used to make phenol, then phenol to make the adhesive
3. Cyclohexane is used primarily for making nylon
4. Benzene is used as a raw material for making detergents. The basic ingredients for toluene and xylene to make explosives (TNT), terephthalic acid (fiber fabric).
Petrochemical and gas-sinetik
Sinetik gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Several petrochemical examples of syn-gas as follows:
1. Ammonia (NH3)
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
Nitrogen gas from the air and hydrogen gas from the syn-gas. Ammonia is used to make fertilizer [CO (NH2) 2] urea, [(NH4) 2SO4]; ZA and (NH4NO3), ammonium nitrate.
2. Urea [CO (NH2) 2]
CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) → NH2COH4 (S)
NH2CONH4 (S) → CO (NH2) 2 (s) + H2O (g)
3. Methanol (CH3OH)
CO (g) + 2H3 (g) → CH3OH (g)
Most of the methanol is converted to formal-dehida and some are used to make fiber and fuel mixtures.
4. Formal dehida (HCHO)
CH3OH (g) → HCHO (g) + H2 (g)
Formal dehida in water known as formalin used to preserve biological preparations.
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